Biodegradation of HCB

Biodegradation of HCB 1-2-1- Degradation of HCB under anaerobic condition: In the past decade, the usage of HCB prohibited in many country but HCB has been found as hazardous pollutants in many places worldwide. Biodegradation of HCB is possible in environmental under anaerobic conditions such as sodium, groundwater and soil but the progress is very slowly (Beurskens and others, 1992; Chang and others, 1997). Some reports documented about biodegradation in sediments (Chen and others, 2002; Chen and others, 2004; Hirano and others, 2007; Pavlostathis and Prytula, 2000; Prytula and Pavlostathis, 1996), soil (Watanabe and Yoshikawa, 2008). Degradation of CLD[2] in anaerobic sewage sludge was reported by (Fathepure and others, 1988), The authors observed greater than 90% pesticide removal after 3 weeks. The only Three strains of bacteria capability of degrading Hexachlorobenzene via reductive dechlorination have been isolated (TaÃ…Å ¸ and others, 2011), that including Dehalobium chlorocoercia DF-1 (Wu and others, 2002), Dehalococcoides sp. strain CBDB1 and Dehalococcoides ethenogenes strain 195 (Adrian and others, 2000; Fennell and others, 2004; TasÃÅ' §, 2009; TaÃ…Å ¸ and others, 2009).      1-2-2- Metabolites and Mechanism of Anaerobic Dechlorination Anaerobic degradation reductive dechlorination of HCB was first reported in 1987 (Fathepure and others, 1988). So far, the pathway that is known for the microbial degradation of HCB under anaerobic canditions by coupling reductive dehalogenation to electron transport (Beurskens and others, 1994; Chen and others, 2000; Hirano and others, 2007; TaÃ…Å ¸ and others, 2011). Chlorinated aromatics can serve as electron acceptors (Fathepure and others, 1988). Reductive dechlorination pathways is shown in figure 1 and HCB were dechlorinated via 1,2,3,5-and 1,2,4,5-tetrachIorobenzene (TeCB), 1,3,5- and 1,2,4-TCB , 1,2,4-TCB[3] and 1,3-DCB[4] . they are final dechlorination products (Beurskens and others, 1992; Boyd and others, 1987; Fathepure and others, 1988; Holliger and others, 1992). 1-3- Biodegradation of DDT[5] 1-3-1- Degradation of DDT under anaerobic condition: DDT was the first synthetic insecticide. Nowadays, use of this persistent organic pollutants is prohibited in most countries, but still DDT is ubiquitous in the environment all (Purnomo and others, 2011; Sudharshan and others, 2012). DDT can be biodegradation or mineralized by multistep processes in both aerobic and anaerobic condition. For example sediments capibilty of utilizing persistent pesticides and degradation even mineralized by aerobic and anaerobic degradation (Fang and others, 2014). Thus far, species within the genera Pseudomonas (Chacko and Lockwood, 1967; Kamanavalli and Ninnekar, 2004), Sphingomonas (Chacko and Lockwood, 1967; Fang and others, 2014), Desulfomonile tiedjei (DeWeerd and others, 1990) and Eubacterium limosum (ATCC 8486) is isolated from the human intestine (Yim and others, 2008), and Alcaligenes denitrificans (Ahuja and Kumar, 2003)‎ have been found to metabolize DDT. (Corona-Cruz and others, 1999), reported anaerobic coupled with aerobic biodegrad ation of DDT and maximum DDT degradation of 84.4 %. 1-3-2- Metabolites and Mechanism of Anaerobic Dechlorination Biodegradation pathway of DDT is multistep process in anaerobic environment, involving reductive dechlorination, dioxygenation, hydrogenation, hydroxylation, decarboxylation, hydrolysis (a major transformation pathway in soil and water in the presence of H2O, H+, and OH ¯ ), and meta-ring cleavage reactions. Biodegradation pathway of DDT is multistep process in anaerobic environment involving reductive dechlorination such as three degradation step (DDT→DDD,DDE[6]), hydrogenation, dioxygenation, hydroxylation, decarboxylation and meta-ring cleavage reactions(Rangachary and others, 2012). That is different from the degradation pathways for anaerobic biodegradation but high-order metabolites such as DDA, DDOH[7] and DDNU (Aislabie and others, 1997). (Wedemeyer, 1967), reported first metabolic pathways for DDT by aerobacter aerogenes that shown at the bottom: DDT → DDD[8] →DDMU[9] →DDMS[10] → DDNU[11] → DDA[12] → DBP[13], or DDT → DDE. Researches were lack of information about DDT degradation. Later, (Planche and others, 1979) indicted DDE could be degraded to DDMU by a microcosm under anaerobic sediments.biodegradation pathway in sediment shown on figure 2. DDT and its metabolites in the sediment: DDT →DDD → DDMS and DDE → DDMU (Li and others, 2010; Quensen and others, 2001; Sudharshan and others, 2012) and the relative transformation rates of DDT, DDE, and DDD is DDT>DDD>DDE (Huang and others, 2001), so DDD was the major biodegradation product of DDT under anaerobic environments (Mwangi and others, 2010; Yu and others, 2011). DDT metabolic reports in human intestinal gut by (Yim and others, 2008), that Eubacterium limosum transformed DDT completely to DDD and used DDT as electron donors. 1-4- Biodegradation of heptachlor 1-4-1- Degradation of heptachlor under anaerobic condition Anaerobic degradation reductive dechlorination of HCB was first reported in 1987 (Fathepure and others, 1988). So far, the pathway that is known for the microbial degradation of HCB under anaerobic canditions by coupling reductive dehalogenation to electron transport (Beurskens and others, 1994; Chen and others, 2000; Hirano and others, 2007; TaÃ…Å ¸ and others, 2011). Chlorinated aromatics can serve as electron acceptors (Fathepure and others, 1988). Reductive dechlorination pathways is shown in figure 1 and HCB were dechlorinated via 1,2,3,5-and 1,2,4,5-tetrachIorobenzene (TeCB), 1,3,5- and 1,2,4-TCB , 1,2,4-TCB[3] and 1,3-DCB[4] . they are final dechlorination products (Beurskens and others, 1992; Boyd and others, 1987; Fathepure and others, 1988; Holliger and others, 1992). Heptachlor used as insecticide. Heptachlor is mostly persistent in environment (Sakai and others, 2008). Under anaerobic conditions, heptachlor is showed only limited conversion (Hill and McCarty, 1967). T he data available on this substance indicate that heptachlor is degraded for more than several years in soil (Lichtenstein and others, 1970; Mahugija, 2014; Miles and others, 1969). (Sethunathan and Yoshida, 1973), this paper is a research about Clostridium sp. that isolated from flooded soil for degradation ÃŽ ³-BHC and heptachlor. 1-4-2- Metabolites and Mechanism of Anaerobic Dechlorination Biotransformation of heptachlor is not easy and simple but occur in both situations anaerobic and aerobic, mainly to the stable heptachlor epoxide (Lichtenstein and others, 1970). (Hayashi and others, 2013) , have reported that heptachlor was degraded a small amount to heptachlor epoxide in soil. Figure3 shown this degradation pathway. 1-5- Biodegradation of endrin and dieldrin 1-5-1-Degradation of endrin and dieldrin under anaerobic condition Of the year 1960s began studies on biodegradation of endrin and dieldrin that more researches were reported about the aerobic biodegradation (Matsumoto and others, 2009). Biodegradation of dieldrin and endrin was reviewed in 2007 and 1982 (Lal and Saxena, 1982; Matsumoto and others, 2009). (GOWDA and Sethunathan, 1977), studied that endrin proceeded under anaerobic conditions in three soils by radiotracer technique. Thay have reported anaerobic microbial strains could degrade various types of POPs such as ,heptachlor, dieldrin, aldrin, endrin and HCB. These strains isolated from PCB-contaminated sediment. (Baczynski and others, 2004), reported that methanogenic granular sludge could dechlorination of cyclodiene pesticides such as dieldrin and endrin.(Baczynski and others, 2004), studied methanogenic granular sludge with purpose dechlorinate dieldrin and endrin. Biodegradation studies under anaerobic conditions are summarized in Table 2. 1-5-2- Metabolites and Mechanism of Anaerobic Dechlorination Deldrin has simple mechanism reported by (Maule and others, 1987) that is the deletion of the chlorine atom from chlorinated hydrocarbon. (Chiu and others, 2005), reported cleaving the epoxide ring by a mechanism of epoxide reduction by anaerobic enrichment culture obtained from river sediment. So, they are the Transformation of deldrin to aldrin then aldrin is converted to two syn- and anti-monodechlorodieldrin metabolites by epoxide reduction. Researches show only two monochlorinated metabolites of endrin under anaerobic transformation so it can say bacteria have a catalyzed role in reductive dehalogenation (Matsumoto and others, 2009). 1-6- Biodegradation of lindane and HCH-isomers 1-6-1-Degradation of lindane and HCH-isomers under anaerobic condition Lindane and the other HCH isomers have been used in agriculture as a pesticide. There are little knowledge about anaerobic HCH degradation. It has not been reporte on the anaerobic biodegradation of the ÃŽ µ –HCH (Lal and others, 2010). While the four HCH isomers can degrade under anaerobic conditions .Thus far, species within the genera Dehalobacter (Doesburg and others, 2005), Clostridium spp (Jagnow and others, 1977; MacRae and others, 1969), Bacillus circulans and Bacillus Brevis (Gupta and others, 2000) and two Desulfovibrio species (Boyle and others, 1999), Citrobacter (such as ,C. butyricum, C. pasteurianum and Citrobacter freundii) (Heritage and MacRae, 1977; Heritage and Rae, 1977), Desulfococcus (Elango and others, 2011) and Desulfobacter curvatus (Badea and others, 2009) have been found to metabolize the lindane and HCH-isomers. (Van Eekert and others, 1998), have studied, capable of degrading beta-HCH using a upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors with methanogenic granular sludges. A number of studies have utilized for degradation isomer-HCH of anaerobic mixed bacterial culture such as (Kohnen and others, 1975) that mixed culture consisting of Bacilli. Mixed culture Clostridia and C. butyricum, C. pasteurianum and Citrobacter freundii. Thay are shown degradation rate in the following order ÃŽ ³-HCH > ÃŽ ±-HCH > ÃŽ ²-HCH = ÃŽ ´-HCH (Jagnow and others, 1977). (Pesce and Wunderlin, 2004) isolated bacteria from sediment and have used in aerobic mixed bacterial culture including Bosea thiooxidans and Sphingobacterium paucimobilis, degraded HCH after 3 days. 1-6-2- Metabolites and Mechanism of anaerobic Dechlorination the mechanism of biotransformation of HCH-isomer and lindane under anaerobic condition is explained with detection of intermediates substance of the presumed pathway. According to papers and reports, intermediates of HCH such as TeCCHs[16], PeCCHs[17] , PCCHa[18] (Buser and Mueller, 1995). (Tsukano and Kobayashi, 1972), abserved TeCCH flooded rice field soils treated with lindan but this intermediates was not found in soils treated with sodium azide or in soils without lindane treatment. suggested two degradation pathway for HCH isomers under anaerobic conditions, Based upon identify the intermediates material gama-, alfa-HCH → PCCHa (with a dechlorination) → 1,2-DCB[19] → 1,3-DCB→ finally CB for ÃŽ ²- and ÃŽ ´-HCH → TeCCH → 1,2,3-TCB → 1,2-DCB → 1,4-DCB → CB[20] The other Simpler pathway for the reductive dehalogenation of HCH is: HCH → TeCCH → dichlorocyclohexadiene ( DCCH) → finally benzene (Doesburg and others, 2005; Lal and others, 2010). Most papers of anaerobic degradation reported the accumulation of benzene and chlorobenzene (Buser and Mueller, 1995; Middeldorp and others, 1996; Zhu and others, 2005). that Figure3 shown this pathways. 1-7- Biodegradation of Methoxychlor 1-7-1-Degradation of Methoxychlor under anaerobic condition Methoxychlor [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxyphenyl) ethane] is a hazardous substance and stable for this reason, is one of POPs. Methoxychlor have a half-life : Enterobacter amnigenus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus subtilis,Klebsiella terrigena, Mycobacterium obuense, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, and Achromobacter. Biodegradation studies of OCPs under anaerobic conditions are summarized in Table 2. Figure 3v: Proposed pathway for anaerobic biodegradation of HCH under a) alfa- HCH b) gama and beta- HCH (Doesburg and others, 2005; Lal and others, 2010) 1-7-2- Metabolites and Mechanism of anaerobic Dechlorination Microbial species and pathway dechlorination of methoxychlor in the environment are not well-known or there are few reports (Castro and Yoshida, 1971; Masuda and others, 2011b). Enterobacter aerogenes were capable of degrading methoxychlor to DMDD [21] under anaerobic conditions (Mendel and Walton, 1966). Eubacterium limosum is a bacteria from human intestine that has been able degrades of methoxychlor to 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(pmethoxyphenyl) ethane (methoxydichlor) (Yim and others, 2008). Also, K. pneumoniae converts methoxychlor to [1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)ethane, de-Cl-MXC] (Baarschers and others, 1982). [1] hexachlorobenzene (HCB) [2] Chlordane (CLD) [3] -trichlorobenzene (TCB) [4] 1,3-dichlorobenzene (1,3-DCB) [5] 1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT) [6] 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (DDE) [7] 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethanol (DDOH) [8] 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDD) [9] 1-chloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (DDMU) [10] 1-chloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDMS) [11] 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (DDNU) [12] 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)acetic acid (DDA) [13] 4,4-dichlorobenzophenone (DBP) [14] Removal and rate [15] Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane(DDT) [16] tetrachlorocyclohexenes (TeCCHs) [17] pentachlorocyclohexenes (PeCCHs) [18] pentachlorocyclohexanes (PCCHa) [19] dichlorobenzene (DCB ) [20] Chlorobenzene [21] bis(p-methoxyphenyl)-1,1–dichloroethane (DMDD)

A Concerted and Cogent Effort Needed to Establish Equality in Society Essay

The concept of establishing equality among all members of the society is as old as the history of civilization – the list of do’s and don’ts of several cultures also emanate out of that, before the dominant groups of the societies convert them as doctrines to maintain their dominance over the minorities. However, the voice of the concerned humans also rise from time to time, like what is now being heard under the titles like â€Å"human rights† or â€Å"living wage†. Though usually dubbed as a means of meeting the basic living requirements, living wage aims at facilitating humans to earn their lives to fulfill what Maslow (1943) described in his â€Å"hierarchy of needs,† which comprises of five sets of needs such as basic needs (air, water, food, clothing and shelter), safety and security needs, social needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs. Thus the concept of living wage raises issues of human rights with special emphasis on the right to survival and dignity. This article thus explores three situations depicted by three researchers to underpin the drivers of inequality in general. India is Plagued by Caste-concept and Exploitative Colonial Ruling Style In spite of being officially a staunch supporter of human rights with a clear backing from its constitution, India is still plagued by the legacies of the Hindu caste system and exploitative format of British ruling style, if the findings of Channa (2010) have anything to go by. He points out with evidence that there is a huge gap between the constitutional vision and the ground-level realities regarding the social and economic situation in India, where it clearly fails to reason why the majority of its population still reels under â€Å"below poverty line†, save providing living wage. Channa points out that legislation or legal strictures prove insufficient against the power of social will in India, which needs to be transformed to a state where the dominant groups of the society will unlearn the caste and exploitative colonial ruling concepts and perceive the real-time need of restoring the human status of its fellow countrymen. South Carolina Suffers from Contradictory Legislations The issue of living wage gets another dimension when it is seen from interpretive and political economic anthropological perspectives, where Kingsolver (2010) comes up with the instance of South Carolina, the area which tops in the number of people living in poverty due to high unemployment rate. Here the solution lies in enforcing legislated living wage that would prioritize human needs over the issue of earning profit. Kingsolver argues that the elimination of contradiction in the laws on tax or ‘right to work’ appears to be the first step towards achieving a legislated living wage, otherwise the age-old conflict between the logics of social welfare and the welfare of capital will continue to be at loggerheads in this region. Exploiters in the Avatar of Corporate Giants Bensen (2010) shows how ‘biocapitalism’ of the corporate giants like Philip Morris is actually a veiled threat to the normative functioning of the society, where it violates not only the ethical standards of living, but also carries on with the tendency of exploiting the human capital, let alone ignoring the issue of social equality. For example, the placement of tobacco auction warehouses as well as the leaf-processing plants in North Carolina are strategically placed in predominantly Black residential areas to get low-skill workers at a minimum rate and to profit more by saving the expenditure on workplace conditions. Conclusion All the three papers reviewed above analyze social dynamics of stigmatization under different contexts, where India suffers from the legacies of age-old caste system and exploitative British ruling strategies, while North and South Carolina suffer from racial discrimination and corporate manipulation. Such state of affairs only consolidates the impression that rules to establish human rights cannot be effective unless the mindset of the dominant groups are transformed, and for that matter, UN should steer a cogent and cohesive campaign across the globe on establishing human rights. References Benson, P. (2008). Good clean tobacco: Philip Morris, biocapitalism, and the social course of stigma in North Carolina. American Ethnologist, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 357-379. Channa, M. S. (2010). What do people live on? Living wages in India. American Anthropological Association, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 15-28. Kingsolver, A. (2010). Living wage considerations in the right-to-work state of South Carolina. American Anthropological Association, Vo. 31, No. 1, pp. 30-41. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, pp. 370- 396.

Benefits and challenges of labour migration

Migration of people to other countries in search of employment has occurred all through history and it is by no means a new phenomenon. For many of migration workers, migration is a real lifeline, but all too often, they still face exploitation and abuse. Forced labour, low pay, bad working conditions, virtually no social protection, and denial of freedom of association and trade union rights, discrimination, xenophobia and social exclusion – these are just some of the woes that rob migrants of the benefits they could have gained from working abroad. The countries in question can be classified according to their status as sending or receiving country in correspondence to their level of social and economic development. Workers move between them, cascading from poorer to richer countries. In each of the countries, they mainly take jobs in labour-intensive sectors with low skill requirements and low pay. These are most of all construction, agriculture, hotel and catering as well as domestic services. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Migrants defines a migrant worker as a â€Å"person who is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a state of which he or she is not a resident†. But there is considerable conceptual difficulty in defining a migrant. Migration of labourer takes different forms. In one end, the place of working and residence of the labourer may be different, and the distance covered by daily commuting. At the other end, the worker’s may move permanently from their places of birth or usual place of residence, maintaining little or no contact with their places of origin. Between these two ends, people move away for differing periods of time. Based on how long they are away from their place of origin, the migrants are distinguished as ‘permanent’, ‘semi-permanent’ and ‘temporary’. Labour migration belongs to temporary migration, which is likely to stay away from their places of origin for more than a few months in a year. The temporary migrants are also known as ‘short duration’ migrants, ‘seasonal’ migrants or ‘circulatory’ migrants. The decision to migrate for economic reasons can have both positive and negative consequences. Migrants may secure a better income, have access to better social services, and be able to provide a better education for their children or benefit from the enrichment of becoming a member of a transnational community at ease in different cultures. However, migration may also cause family disruption when family members have to stay behind, and may involve sacrificing a familiar lifestyle and becoming a â€Å"stranger† in a new country. The complexity of the present day migration stream has intensified with distinctions between migrant workers, trainees, tourists, refugees and displaced persons becoming increasingly blurred. The term â€Å"migrants† appears to be broader than the term ‘migrant workers' and is increasingly used in international discussions of human rights. The traditional explanation of migration as a movement from poor to rich nations is too simplified. There are both economic and non-economic factors affecting these flows. International migration has contributed to growth and prosperity in both host and source countries. Migrant worker remittances represent the second largest international monetary trade flow, exceeded only by petroleum. Migrants also provide a valuable source of semi-skilled and unskilled labour to many industrialising countries and provide a source of highly skilled labour to advanced countries, thereby assisting the latter in maintaining economic competitiveness. Labour migration policies differ from other migration policies directed at migration flows that may also have an impact on labour markets, for example refugee and family reunification, in the sense that they do not have humanitarian objectives but apply economic criteria with a view to responding to labour market needs. Governments at all points on the migration spectrum increasingly recognize the potential of regulatory mechanisms to maximize the positive impact of labour migration. Many sending and receiving countries are developing their regulatory capacities to manage labour mobility by considering the interests of respective governments, societies, and the migrant. Positive tensions for receiving countries: raise total output and incomes in the rich, host countries; increase efficiency in the use of the world’s resources all around, in rich and poor countries; increase the supply of entrepreneurship and stimulate the creation of small business; increase savings, investment, and human capital formation in the rich countries; accelerate the pace of innovation; increase the flow of remittances to poor countries; alleviate the economic problems associated with the aging population in rich countries. Globalization is a major driving force of international labour migration. Globalization has made migration much easier through better communications, dissemination of information through mass media and improved transport. Countries are at different stages of demographic transition, with developing countries typically having younger populations than developed countries. One of the most frequently cited costs of migration is so-called ‘brain drain’ — the loss of educated workers with valuable skills, which can impose large losses on governments that bear the costs of education and training. Brain drain is potentially a concern for all economies, both developing and developed, with some developed economies experiencing significant rates of skilled emigration. The greatest global concern in the area of international labour migration is the unprecedented rise in irregular forms of migration that has occurred in recent years. The numbers of unauthorized migrant workers are increasing in virtually every part of the world. A large proportion of labour migration occurs illegally, aided and abetted by a clandestine and often criminal industry. Increasingly, governments of both sending and receiving countries are developing regulatory mechanisms to manage labour migration. These include selective recruitment policies by countries needing labour, and strong marketing and overseas employment strategies by countries supplying labour. Migrant workers benefit host countries in a number of ways. The overall economic impact of all migrant workers to the UK for example suggests that they make a positive net contribution of around  £2.5 billion to the public accounts. There are huge implications for sending countries as a result of out-migration, the most crucial of which are the loss of expertise and skills. This brain drain is particularly acute in developing countries, especially where the move abroad is permanent. Public services, such as health, education and social services, are losing large numbers of skilled workers to migration. Structural changes and decreasing investment in the public sector has increased the pressure on public sector workers to migrate, as shown by trends in the health and education sectors. Although many economic migrants work in relatively low-paid jobs they regularly send money home to their families and relatives. However, it is difficult to estimate the scale of these remittances to sending countries because of the often informal manner in which they are returned, but there is little doubt that they contribute to the national income of the countries involved, and act as a stimulus to longer-term economic growth. Migrant workers who return home bring experience and knowledge from working in another country. This benefits the home country as a whole by adding to its pool of talented workers, particularly where the skills are relevant to the needs of the home economy and the migrant workers are willing to use them upon return. It also benefits the individual worker who will have developed through contact with people possessing a range of human, intellectual and professional skills. Access to educational and language courses in the host country should open up opportunities for career promotion at home and assist the personal development of each worker. Bibliography International Organisation for Migration. 2005. World Migration 2005. Costs and Benefits of International Migration. Kothari, U. (2002). Migration and chronic poverty. Chronic Poverty Research Centre. Institute for Development Policy and Management. University of Manchester. Working Paper No. 16. Linard, Andre. (1998). Migration and globalization: The new slaves. Brussels: ICFTU, July. Stalker, Peter. (2000). Workers without frontiers: The impact of globalization on international migration. International Labour Office, Geneva. World Economic and Social Survey. (2004). International migration trends Chapter11. World Health Organisation. Health and Human Rights Publications Series. Issue No.4 (December 2003). International Migration, Health and Human Rights.   

The Effects Of Incarceration On Life After Incarceration

Adjusting to life after incarceration can be a very long and difficult process to overcome. There are many obstacles people face when returning home for the first time in years. Most people generally come home to nothing and have to try to make a life out of it. As an ex-con you face stigma, lack of opportunities and the constant risk of recidivism. Recidivism is the ongoing cycle of incarceration. You continue to be in and out of prison because you cannot successfully re-transition into society. This topic is worth investigating because recidivism is a current problem in the United States and it usually takes place because the justice system fails to prepare their inmates for what life will be like. Rehabilitation is key and because there is a lack of that there is a lack of success in offenders returning home. Young adults should be aware of recidivism because they can easily be sucked into the system and this can happen to them. They can find themselves in a position where they en d up in prison and fall victim to recidivism. Questions that will guide this research include: 1. What resources are available for those who are trying to re-enter society after prison? 2. How does stereotypes and stigma affect how they adapt and thrive in society? 3. What is the correlation between lack of opportunities and recidivism? 4. How does rehabilitation contribute to lower recidivism rates vs. prison? This research will stand to prove the thesis that the difficulty of the re-entryShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Children After Parental Incarceration1302 Words   |  6 PagesA Literature Review: The Effects on Children After Parental Incarceration Prisons have been around for centuries and in many countries the prison population has grown quickly. The prisoners’ health, behavior and well-being have been focal points in many social concerns, however; incarceration goes beyond the prisoners’ experience. 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