When to Form a Plural with an Apostrophe

When to Form a Plural with an Apostrophe When to Form a Plural with an Apostrophe When to Form a Plural with an Apostrophe By Maeve Maddox This reader wants to know why we write 1980s and not 1980s. I understood that making text entities with non-letter characters into a plural form, you separate the s from the term with an apostrophe 1900s, Jones, Smiths, or Bang!s. Â  So, why no apostrophe with 1980s? A lot of writers share this readers understanding that non-letter characters are pluralized by adding apostrophe s. Alas. Alas, indeed. That pesky apostrophe raises a lot of blood pressure for writers of English. If I had my druthers, wed phase out altogether the use the apostrophe to form the possessive of nouns. What meaning would be lost if we wrote my mothers birthday, the cats tail or the cats tails? Teachers and editors could save their red ink for dealing with the apostrophe and plurals. NOTE: Ive received so many protests regarding these facetious remarks that I hereby withdraw them. We do need the apostrophe to form the possessive. Mea culpa, dear readers. I cant really answer the readers question. What I can do is lay out what the Chicago Manual of Style says about when to use an apostrophe and when not to. And it has a lot to say. Here are only some of the rules this style guide offers. Dont use an apostrophe to pluralize a proper name or other capitalized noun: Many Pakistanis have immigrated to the U.S. (not Pakistanis) Ill be occupied for the next three Thursdays. (not Thursdays) The Jeffersons live here. (not the Jeffersons) NOTE: The CMS suggests that if you want to pluralize an awkward name like Waters or Rogers, you may want to reword the sentence to avoid writing the Waterses or Rogerses. (or Maddoxes?) Dont use an apostrophe to pluralize a title: I have three Madame Bovarys and five Animal Farms. (Type the title in italics and the s in Roman face. When forming the plural of words and hyphenated phrases that arent nouns but are used as nouns sometimes you do and sometimes you dont: I want no ifs or buts. Here are the dos and donts of blogging. Ive written 25 thank-yous. BUT Im tired of all his maybes. DO NOT use an apostrophe to form the plural of capital letters used as words, abbreviations that contain no interior periods, and numerals used as nouns: the three Rs. the 1990s lengthy URLs NOTE: For the abbreviations p. (page), n. (note), and MS (manuscript), the plurals are pp., nn., and MSS And for you scientific types, special rules apply for the plural of SI symbols: No periods are used after any of the SI symbols for units, and the same symbols are used for both the singular and the plural. Most symbols are lowercased; exceptions are those that stand for units derived from proper names (A for ampere, etc.) and those that must be distinguished from similar lowercased forms. All units are lowercased in their spelled-out form except for degree Celsius (Â °C). For those of you who, like me, hadnt heard of SI symbols, youll find a list here. DO use the apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation that combines upper and lowercase letters or has interior periods: The department graduated five M.A.s and two Ph.D.s this year. NOTE: If you leave out the periods, you can write MAs but youd still have to write PhDs. DO use the apostrophe to form the plural of lowercase letters: Mind your ps and qs. DO NOT use the apostrophe to form the plural of capital letters: What the CMS actually says is Capital letters do not normally require an apostrophe in the plural. One could write a sentence like this without confusing a reader: You need to improve the formation of your Ts and Zs. But one might be tempted to reach for the apostrophes with a sentence like this: You need to improve the formation of your Ss, Is, and Us. And finallyDRUM ROLLour readers question about using an apostrophe with non-letter characters: DO NOT use an apostrophe to form the plural of a number: The 1920s were noted for excess. I bowled two 300s and two 238s. Source: Chicago Manual of Style, paragraphs 7.9, 7.12, 7,14, 7.15, 7.16, 7.65, 9.59. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How to Format a UK Business LetterThe Writing ProcessUses of the Past Participle

50 Productivity Tips to Boost Your Performance [Infographic]

50 Productivity Tips to Boost Your Performance [Infographic] It’s no secret that many people are not performing at their fullest potential. In a world full of entertainment and distractions around every corner, it’s difficult to perform at a level that is truly reflective of your skills and talent. But it’s important to find ways to counter this so you can be the best version of yourself. Here are 50 productivity tips to boost your performance and unlock your hidden potential. Â   [Source: Wrike]

Explain why information systems project management requires careful Essay

Explain why information systems project management requires careful attention to quality management - Essay Example Second reason is that lack of focus on quality management within information systems project management can result in rework and high number of project changes. Such issues can cause delay in the completion of business processes which can consequently decrease the level of organizational efficiency. This is the reason why experts suggest adhering to the standards of quality while managing any information system project. â€Å"It certainly is a better and safer practice to plan quality in advance than hope that no quality gaps occur† (Mladinov 2012, p. 1). Therefore, we can say that quality management and IT systems project management go side by side in order to reap desired benefits from the projects. Quality planning process refers to the set of tasks that ensure quality of the project during all phases of the project. Some of those tasks include designing and checking the quality standards, using most appropriate resources for the project, and continuously monitoring the efficiency and quality of each of the completed tasks. Quality planning is a systematic process that interprets the policy regarding project quality into a set of measurable targets. The planning includes identification of all objectives and laying down a sequence of steps to meet those objectives. The techniques of quality planning include use of control charts, statistical sampling, flowcharting, designing of experiments, cost benefit analysis, benchmarking, cost benefit analysis, and use of quality management methodologies. The outputs of the quality assurance process include updated project management plan, updated organizational process assets, updated project document, and change requests in accordance with the results of analysis of processes. Mladinov, L 2012, Importance of Quality Management on IT Projects Within the Pharmaceutical Industry, viewed 16 December 2013,

CONSTITUTIONAL POLICY Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CONSTITUTIONAL POLICY - Research Paper Example The rule of law is paramount in all instances, and this is manifested by adherence to the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. At any rate, the Fourth Amendment guarantees American citizens against searches and seizures which are limitless and unreasonable. The police in carrying out this mandate has to comply with the strict requirements in obtaining a court-sanctioned warrant, such as stating the probable cause, the police officer giving a sworn statement, and stating specifically the persons or things to be seized, and the place/s to be searched. This may seem cumbersome to the police but it is one safeguard put in place so that no abuses are committed by officers of the law. Discussion There have been a number of cases which were precedent setting in terms of giving out concrete applications and correct interpretations of this constitutionally-guaranteed citizen right. The Fourth Amendment is a law against unreasonable searches and seizures but jurisprudence in today's courts have shifted the law somewhat to the primary protection of an individual's privacy. But on the other hand, there have been cases also where the government intruded into the private preserves of an individual based on some security issues, such as intercepting electronic or voice communications. It is important to note also the Fourth Amendment is not a blanket general type of an implied constitutional right to privacy. Some important cases are discussed below. In Weeks v. United States (1914), the main issue was the warrantless seizure by the police on items owned by Mr. Freemont Weeks. The items seized were lottery tickets to be transported through mail, which is considered as illegal. Mr. Weeks brought action on this issue, saying the seized items cannot be used against him in court, as this was a violation of right to privacy as protected under the Fourth Amendment. This case was the first application of the â€Å"exclusionary rule† in which evidence obtained illeg ally due to the absence of a valid warrant cannot be used in court; this case became a precedent for all subsequent cases. The law applied was the legal principle that the protection of the Fourth Amendment applied to everybody alike; whether an innocent citizen or somebody who is accused, its protection is held inviolate. A final decision of the court concluded to have the seized papers returned to Mr. Weeks. In a second case law, Silverthorne Lumber Company, Inc., Et Al. v. United States (1920), the Fourth Amendment protection was also invoked by said petitioners. It was a case of tax evasion in which police agents seized the company's books of accounts and other records pertaining to their business operations. Later, the seized documents were eventually ordered returned by the court but the agents made photocopies of the same documents to be used as their evidence. The final decision of the court was a promulgation of the â€Å"fruits of the poisoned tree† principle, in wh ich any subsequent evidence obtained by virtue of a warrantless seizure is tainted as violation of the Fourth Amendment. This legal doctrine is an extension of the former â€Å"exclusionary rule† cited in the previous paragraph. Any knowledge or information obtained by virtue of an illegal seizure cannot be used in court against the accused. The final decision was to state that the protection given by the Fourth Amendment extends to corporations as well. In Mapp v. Ohio (1961), it was a similar case of a violation of the

The Boer War Essay Example for Free

The Boer War Essay To what extent did the Boer War change attitudes to Empire in Britain? The British Empire at its peak was considered the greatest empire in the world. It was the empire on which the sun never set. By 1897 it was guarded by a navy that was equal to the navies of two other powers. One newspaper described Britain as being in splendid isolation in that it had no enemies and needed no friends. The presss view on the events relating to the empire was very important. In 1907 Lord Sanderson, Permanent Undersecretary wrote in his retirement It has sometimes seemed to me that a foreigner reading our press the British Empire must appear in the light of some huge giant sprawling over the globe with gouty fingers and toes spreading in every direction which cannot be approached without eliciting a scream. Other examples later show how the press portrayed the majority of public thoughts and reflections on certain issues. In the late Seventeenth Century the Dutch East India Company had formed a trading station in South Africa near the Cape of Good Hope. The poorest members of this community were strongly protestant farmers called treboers or Boers. These pilgrims called themselves Afrikaners, people of Africa and searched for land. They spoke Afrikaans, a modification of Dutch. They were the original foreign settlers in South Africa. These people were unreceptive of Africans as well as Europeans. When travelling to India and the Far East the Cape of Good Hope became an essential naval base. Britain appreciated its importance in Empire relations as it allowed Britain to position herself significantly in order to defend her Empire as well as trade with it. The arrival of the British in South Africa caused a vast amount of tension. The conflict led to the Boers embarking on the Great Trek and setting up two separate states. At that time in South Africa diamonds had been discovered at Kimberley. This mineral revolution led to an influx of people to South Africa to claim their share of the fortune. The European immigrants who worked in the gold and diamond mines, 41,000 of them, mainly British, were deprived of having been granted voting rights from the Transvaal. These Uitlanders (outsiders) were in Paul Krugers (Transvaal President) eyes a tool for manipulation of the British government who were using the issue to end the independence of the Boer Republics. This was a great threat to the fiercely independent Boers who would fail to accept any foreign interference from Britain especially such which would result in a direct threat to their government i.e giving the Uitlanders the right to vote so that as they grow they will become more powerful and pose a political threat. It was this issue that was the immediate cause of the outbreak of the Boer war. There are many causes of the Boer war, which derive from longstanding Anglo-Boer tensions such as in 1834 when the British abolished slavery. This was not accepted by 5,000 Boers who participated in the Great Trek across the Orange and Vaal rivers where they set up the two new Boer states, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. In 1877 Britain took over control of the Transvaal due to the threat of the Zulus. By 1881 the British had refused to grant independence to the Transvaal despite the Zulu war having ended. Paul Kruger used this to justify an attack on the British in what we now know as the 1st Boer war, which led to a Boer victory at Majuba Hill. The victory led to the partial restoration of independence in agreements of 1882 and 1884. This allowed Britain to supervise foreign policy and to intervene in certain circumstances in domestic matters. The roles of Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary and Alfred Milner, British High Commissioner for South Africa are important in when looking at why war broke out. Joseph Chamberlain, Colonial Secretary, worsened Anglo-Boer relations in the run up to the war. He had notified Kruger that despite what the Transvaal government had understood the agreements signed by the British in the first Boer war had not restored full control over domestic policy to the republic. Chamberlain also appointed a man hostile to the Transvaal Sir Alfred Milner as the British High Commissioner for South Africa and successfully encouraged London not to give long-term loans to the Transvaal. He knew that Transvaal was getting rich and powerful and expressed concerns relating to British interests. Whether Chamberlain wanted war or not his actions were insufficient in being able to stop it. His appointee Milners influence stretched everywhere and he stirred the pot. He placed pressure on the Transvaal government and stretched them to their limits. He did not believe that they were capable of war and greatly underestimated them. Paul Kruger, president of Transvaal saw war as inevitable because his attempts at regaining peace were insufficient for Milner. After Milner rejected Kruger attempts one last time on 9th October 1899 Kruger sent a telegram to British to tell them to move away from their borders. The British ignorant of their potential ignored this and didnt even reply. This cost them dearly. On 11th October the Transvaal launched an attack on the Cape Colony. The British Prime minister said this has relieved us of the task of explaining to the British public why we are at war. Although they knew the real reason was the British refusal to take the Boers seriously and their inability to foresee this event which cost them not only the disrespect of their own people but also the humiliation worldwide. During the early months of the war Britain suffered a series of humiliating defeats at the hands of the Boers. Britains underestimation of the capabilities of the Boers is shown in their failure to ensure that adequate troops and essential supplies of food and ammunition were ready in time for the conflict. The dispatchment of Lord Roberts (Hero of the Indian Mutiny) and Lord Kitchener (Hero of Sudan) was a positive move. It worked so well that by June 1900 British forces were moving swiftly towards victory. Johannesburg and Pretoria had been occupied and Kruger had fled to Europe. The term used in the press that summer was that Britain had been victorious over the bloody Boers. Lord Kitchener and Roberts had retuned. In October 1900 the Unionist government staged the Khaki elections and were victorious over the liberals. It was then to become apparent that the celebrations were premature; the Boers had headed for the countryside where they prepared to fight using guerrilla tactics. By 1901 the Boers had invaded Cape Colony. This provoked Lord Kitchener to return to put them in their place. Kitcheners impact on the Boer war from here on can be described as disastrous in the effect it would happen on the British Empire. His tactics were a huge political blunder and caused massive controversy. His scorch the earth policy, which basically consisted of the burning of farms, crops and villages was outrageous and evil. He used barbed wire fences to divide the country into zones and collected the civilian population into concentration camps. His treatment of them here was appalling and provoked much anger and debate back in Britain where even the most empire loving Englishmen were aghast with his methods. Once the news of the horrors of the concentration camps got back to England it cause massive debate. Pro-Boer liberal MPs were the first to realise Kitcheners blunder in herding women and children into so-called camps of refuge. On the 1st March Lloyd George quoted a Reuters report that correctly described 2 ration scales at the camp. MPs such as John Ellis and C.P Scoot attacked his policy also and they were the ones to borrow the ominous phrase concentration camps from the Spanish who used reconcentrado camps to deal with Cuban guerrillas, and first to give it to the situation. The opponents of the government took a religious and humanitarian tone. The Liberals sent Emily Hobhouse to South Africa to give a report of the conditions. Her report concluded that the army have no humanity and her descriptions of 12 prisoners having to share a small tent and there being no soap, toilets and meagre rations had led the majority to agree with many soldiers that the war was a gigantic mistake . When the British realised the negative reaction to policy adopted by Kitchener to deal with the Boers they offered à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3 million compensation to restore what had been destroyed. A staggering 63,000 claims were received from Boer farmers. This gesture failed to justify the barbaric conduct of Kitchener and his people. The British people accepted peace at Vereeninging without much display of emotion they were more relieved that the humiliation was over. After all 20,000 British lives had been lost and à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½200 million had been exhausted for the cause. Despite these outrageous figures the Boers had lost more. Something in the region of 7,000 men in the war, 28,000 women and children in concentration camps and more than 14,000 blacks. Therefore there were no wild scenes in Trafalgar Square as usually demonstrated on such occasions as victory in a war. The European rivals Germany and France had witnessed the humiliation which one historian refers to as Britains Vietnam. Britain felt dangerously isolated. The occasion failed to provoke public excitement especially that from Empire-minded Englishmen who would rather forget how the two states, Orange Free State and the Transvaal were acquired. The press, which is often representative of public mood, encouraged people to believe war was for cause of Uitlanders and in H.F.Wyatts opinion the majority of working class also had this view. Socialist press depicted the situation in typically negative accusations towards capitalism and imperialism. There view war that the war was fought so that the government may protect its investments abroad and its was the fault of Joseph Chamberlain who they refer to as an unscrupulous minister and the unscrupulous propagandist Milner. One soldier commented Its the worst war ever and all for Gold mines. This shows that the average person was not confident in the motives for the war and because of this didnt agree with it. Rival foreign nations who had respected Britains peaceful attitudes were now appalled by them. German press emphasised this as the German chancellor, Von Bulow said that Britains treatment of prisoners was brutal and inhuman and the general international view was that Britain was a bully of women and children, and a very inefficient one at that. British people at this time were incredibly patriotic people but after this they could not help but feel ashamed and embarrassed by the dreadful tactics used by their country in their treatment of the Boers. The Boer war damaged the unionist government. Alfred Milner refused to accept responsibility but in 1904 when he agreed with the Rand millionaires to import Chinese labourers to work in South African mines it confirmed the view that war was fought over the gold mines. The British government was more concerned with wealth then rights of Uitlanders. There greed had damaged their image as the righteous and honourable government. The Boer war was an even greater shock to British opinion and virtually brought to an end the brief popular enthusiasm for empire building, which had found expression in the jubilee celebrations of 1897. The war led to the emergence of an anti-imperialist group. Before war empire was seen as a benign force, which would bring civilisation to underdeveloped societies and was appreciated by all types of peoples. After the Boer war imperialism became filled with maverick politicians, capitalist cliques and methods of barbarism. It also became less accepted and those that did accept it were usually thought of as strongly right-winged Conservatives. J. A Hobson says that the imperialists had jeopardised the entire wealth of the nation in rousing strong resentment of other nations for no real gain. His view that the empire was a drain on British resources and was not helping the average British man was widely embraced. The war brought an end to Britains splendid isolation. Its vulnerability had been shown and it now needed friends and had created enemies. As the Boer war revealed the weaknesses of the British Anglo-German relation also deteriorated. British press began to focus less on the Boer war and the issue of the bloody Boers and more on typical propaganda against the Germans using terms such as wild Kaiser. The emphasis on imperial expansion and the great benefits on empire had been reduced. Instead emphasis was placed on the potential threat posed by Germany. Britain insecurity in itself was shown when Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements to encourage military standards in children. British defence was critically analysed after the war and considerable changes had been made. There was considerable re-planning on home defence issues as well as foreign protection of the empire. Things like food and ammunition supplies which had failed to operate efficiently during the Boer war were looked at closely. Free school meals and medical examination in schools were set up. This as well as the setting up of the Territorial Army (TA) to defend Britain in an invasion showed British fear in response to the failure of the Boer war. The concessions showed that the British had felt the negative impact of the Boer war and it had shaken them up and forced them to consider seriously thinking about their safety. Britain was a nation that was thought of as a policeman it was a defender of the weak. After the Boer war and especially the concentration camps that had been used Britain had lost its credibility and the power it once had to give moral lectures. Britain was once a good example to the world, after the Boer war it was still an example but of what not to do and how not to treat other nations.

The Madness of Ophelia Essay -- Essays on Shakespeares Hamlet

  Ã‚   In Shakespeare's Hamlet, Prince Hamlet may act like he is "mad north-northwest", but it is his lover, Ophelia, who is truly mad.   Both lose their fathers at the hands of others and both have loved ones that seem to have turned against them.   Unlike Hamlet, who has revenge, Ophelia ends up having nothing to hold onto.   Her sanity breaks and sends her into a downward spiral, while Hamlet's remains intact.   In this paper, I will show that it is the manipulation by and loss of the two men Ophelia loved most-Hamlet and her father, Polonius-which leads to her madness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There have been many theories offered-especially by psychoanalysists-concerning the cause of Ophelia's madness.   Freudian theorists like Theodor Lidz attribute it to Ophelia's incestuous feelings for her father and her desire for Hamlet to take her away from, or even kill him.   When this actually does occur, Lidz says Ophelia's incestuous feelings drive her mad.   Victorian theorists claimed that Ophelia was a hysteric.   They defined hysteria is a mental breakdown during adolescence, when a girl suffered from sexual instability.   This mental illness was applied to anyone who showed what psychiatrists thought were "Ophelia-like" behaviors, "the same young years, the same faded beauty, the same fantastic dress and interrupted song" (Shakespeare, 230).   Modern day theorists have attributed Ophelia's madness to schizophrenia, which puts the madness into a biochemical framework.   Schizophrenia has been argued to be "an intel ligible response to the experience of invalidation with the family network, especially to the conflicting emotional messages and mystifying double binds experienced by daughters" (Shakespeare, 236).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   These theories are lackin... ...ne to hold onto.   What made everything fall apart, and what completely ruined her, was her love for them.      Works Cited Partridge, Eric.   Shakespeare's Bawdy.   New York:   E.P. Dutton & Co., 1969. Shakespeare, William.   Hamlet.   Ed. By Susanne L. Wofford.   Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press, 1994. Wilson, J. Dover.   What happens in Hamlet.   Cambridge: University Press, 1960. Works Consulted Ronk, Martha. "Representations of Ophelia." Criticism 1: 21-43. JSTOR. Web. 22 May 2015. "Hamlet." William Shakespeare: The Tragedies. Paul A. Jorgensen. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1985. 47-57. Twayne's English Authors Series 415. Twayne's Authors on GVRL. Web. 22 May 2015. Goddard, Harold. "Hamlet to Ophelia." JSTOR. National Council of Teachers of English, 23 Oct. 2007. Web. 23 May 2015. .

BMW Research.How does the consumer impact a marketing plan created by the brand? Essay

BMW Research Introduction How does the consumer impact a marketing plan created by the brand? Consumer behavior influences the type of marketing plan that is adopted by an organization to promote their brand. An organization can segment its consumer market through defining groups of consumers with characteristics which are similar, but every segment will have varying types of consumers. When an organization recognizes which type of consumer is most likely to purchase their brand, then the organization’s marketing plan can be changed accordingly in order to increase its effectiveness (Retrieved August 14, 2014, from http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Comp-De/Consumer-Behavior.html). BMW carries out various studies to discover their consumers need and consumer behavior which helps them in designing effective marketing plans to market their brand. How is the consumer influenced by others? According to a recent survey, 90 percent of the consumers stated that their buying decisions are influenced by the online reviews from the other consumers. This shows that a consumer can be influenced by other consumers towards a certain brand. Positive customer reviews influences other consumers negatively towards a certain brand while negative consumer reviews influences other consumers negatively. These customer reviews portrays the customer experiences on whether their needs were satisfied or not satisfied with a certain brand. BMW ensures that their products satisfy the needs of their consumers, thus ensuring that there are positive online reviews by their consumers concerning their products (Colson, 2011). Does culture direct a consumer to purchase one product vs. another? Consumer buying decisions are usually influenced by factors which are beyond their control. Cultural factors are external influences which have a great impact on what individuals consume and how they live. The culture represents the beliefs, behavior and also the way individuals observe and interact with other society members. Cultural values play a great role in determining whether a certain product will be purchased in a particular market. As a way of convincing their customers to buy their products, organizations usually use cultural representations, particularly in promotional appeals (Retrieved August 14, 2014, from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/type-buyer-consumer-affect-marketing-strategy-65738.html). The main aim is to connect the customers using the cultural references that can be embraced and understood easily by the consumers. In order to win the consumers, marketers adopt strong research efforts so as to discover differences concerning how sub-culture behaves. BMW acknow ledges this fact and has put its efforts through their marketers to ensure that their consumers relate well and feels more comfortable with their products because they correspond well with their cultural values (Bohner et al, 1997). References Colson, R. S. (2011). BMW. New York: PowerKids Press. How Does the Type of Buyer or Consumer Affect a Marketing Strategy?. (n.d.). Small Business. Retrieved August 14, 2014, from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/type-buyer-consumer-affect-marketing-strategy-65738.html Reference for Business. (n.d.). Consumer Behavior. Retrieved August 14, 2014, from http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Comp-De/Consumer-Behavior.html WÃÆ'Â ¤nke, M., Bohner, G., & Jurkowitsch, A. (1997). There Are Many Reasons to Drive a BMW: Does Imagined Ease of Argument Generation Influence Attitudes?. Journal of Consumer Research, 24(2), 170-178. Â   Â   Â  

European History 1914-to present Essay

The period that immediately followed the First World War was marked by the autocratic regimes in Austria, Germany and Russia being replaced by republics as they were overthrown. There seemed to be a promise of an era of democracy as the seven states that had all been newly created adopted the republican form of government giving the impression that democracy had finally been found after the First World War. However, this did not last as after only two decades, a form of dictatorship took over most of the democratic European countries. While some countries became communists, others took to fascism which resulted to totalitarian form of government (Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya, 2005). In totalitarianism individuals had absolutely no freedom in their life as all political, intellectual, social, cultural, economic and even religious and spiritual activities were subordinated to the authority of the rulers and the government. This form of rule was characterized by the rulers of the government as a central power controlling all the aspects of the citizens’ lives through force and repression such that those who held views that were different from the ideologies of the rulers and had different practices in the mentioned aspects of their lives were considered to be against the state hence enemies. Totalitarianism was manifested through mass-media that was state controlled, one party state in which the party controlled everything that went on in the state, mass surveillance accompanied with state terrorism and restricted free discussion or criticism especially of the governmental ideologies. In European countries such as such as Russia under Stalin and Germany under Hitler, totalitarianism and the practices of the government received overwhelming support from the citizens (Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya, 2005). The support was however not spontaneous, it required the rulers to be charismatic so that he would be able to draw support. The rapid development in infrastructure especially communication and transportation played a great role in the rise and spread of the totalitarianism and growth of its popularity amongst the citizens in the countries in which it was practised. This paper seeks to discuss totalitarianism and the reasons for its rise in Europe in the early 20th century. Totalitarianism is characterized by the state pursuing some goal that is special such as conquest of a certain region, exclusion of all others who hold different ideologies from those ones of the state or industrialization. All resources of the state usually are directed and focussed on achievement of these goals regardless of their cost. Anything that furthers the attainment of the goal is fully supported while the things that threaten to foil this achievement are rejected. It is a form of obsession that triggers an ideology that explains and describes things in terms of the intended goal, justifying all obstacles that could arise and all the forces that may struggle against the state in achieving the desired goal (Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya, 2005). This results to the state getting popular support from the citizens which gives it the power to practice any form of governmental actions. Anyone opposing the goals or ideologies of the state is considered evil and political differences within the state not allowed. Achievement of the goal is never acknowledged even in the event the state actually gets to achieve it. This is because totalitarianism is entirely founded on the ideology of achieving the goal such that in the event the goal is achieved then it should cease to exist. The pursuit of specific goals by different leaders for the states they ruled is considered to be the main reason for the rise of totalitarianism in Europe. As mentioned earlier, fascism was one of the main reasons for totalitarianism. This ideology was common in Germany and Italy. It originated with Mussolini Benito in his rule over the country. This ideology in which the proponents advocated for the creation of a single party state was a reaction against equality, liberty and fraternity that were being proposed by democratic nations such as France and Britain after they won the war. Fascists argued that nations and races usually are in a conflict in which only the strongest and the healthiest survive. Apart from being healthy the strongest also survive by asserting themselves against the weak through repression and in combat (Griffiths 2005). These governments prohibited and suppressed opposition and any form of criticism to the government. In Germany, races that were not German such as the Jews, Slavs and individuals who were either sick or disabled were targeted for execution as Hitler’s government sought to have a nation of pure healthy Germans. Fascism claimed that a nation was the race and hence sought to execute everyone who was not of the race of the rulers (Griffiths 2005). Fascism is also characterized by respect and love for collective organization in which individuals work together to achieve a certain goals and ideology. This formed totalitarianism in Italy and Germany. In which the citizens were organized against other individuals of other races that were considered a threat to achieving a nation that was formed of one superior race. Nazism was movement mostly in Germany which was is also referred to as National Socialism. This movement sought to spread the ideologies of Adolf Hitler’s government in Germany and the world as a whole. Nazism is argued to be a form of fascism as its characteristics are the same as those ones of fascism as it featured racism, expansion and obedience/loyalty to one leader. Hitler expected everyone to be loyal to him and executed anyone who defiled his orders. Nazism also had theories about other races which portrayed them as inferior to German Aryans and a threat to its existence hence the necessity to get rid of them. This led to the massive execution of the Jews and the disabled Germans as they were considered unfit for survival according to fascism. This ideology is therefore one of the reasons for the rise of totalitarianism in Germany and most of its neighbouring nations (Klaus Vondung 2005). Bolshevism-Stalinism was the reason for the rise of totalitarianism in Russia. Bolshevism was a movement formed by professionals who believed in military control over the country and democratic centralism such the party (Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party) took form of internal hierarchy in which individuals from other groups were not allowed to lead the party. Only these members made decisions and any party that was formed to challenge Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party it was purged (Worley, Morgan & Laporte 2002). This movement greatly supported single party state and is believed to have caused the rise of Stalinism. Stalinism refers to the form of government used by Joseph Stalin and those who were allied to his ideologies (Worley, Morgan & Laporte 2002). This ideology is sometimes referred to as red fascism as it is a form of fascism. Stalinism refers to a form of governance that is characterized by oppression of the citizens and extensive spying by the government so that individuals can not criticize or form movements to overthrow it. This system was also characterized by purging in which those who were opposed to the government ideologies were sent to prison camps or sometimes killed. The state used propaganda and established some form of cult around a leader who was a dictator so that he would have absolute control over the communist party and maintain control over all the citizens of Russia. Apart from the mentioned countries, Austria also participated in the rise of totalitarianism by supporting Nazism and Fascism. Its Prime Minister Kurt Waldheim is said to have assisted Germany in transporting Jews to dearth camps. Several other Eastern and Central European countries also got obsessed with the fascist movement (Klaus Vondung 2005). This included Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Slovakia, Lithuania and Croatia. The fascist movements in these countries were all characterized racism specifically against the Jews whom they associated with communism which they greatly despised. Spain is the only country which though fascist never got obsessed with race and believing in the ant-Jewish conspiracies that characteristic of German’s Nazism. The rise of totalitarianism in Europe during the early 20th century was mainly due to fascism. Both Nazism and Bolshevism-Stalinism which were the main movements in Europe at this time and are all forms of fascism which emphasizes on the power of the state over the citizens. A significant characteristic of these movements is racism in which each state believed in being occupied by only those who were of its race hence eliminating those who belonged to different races or had different practices than were contrary to the ideologies of the ruling government. The most affected race in Europe was the Jewish. The rise of totalitarianism in Europe can therefore be solely attributed to fascism. References Gardner, H. , Kleiner, S. & Mamiya, C. , (2005). Gardner’s Art Through The Ages: The Western Perspective. Sidney: Cengage Learning. Griffiths, R. (2005). Fascism second ed. New York, NY: Continuum International Publishing Group. Klaus Vondung, K. (2005). The Apocalypse in Germany, Columbia and London: Univ. of Missouri Press. Redles, D. (2005). Hitler’s Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation. New York, NY: New York Univ. Press. Worley, M. , Morgan, K. & Laporte, N. , (2002). Bolshevism, Stalinism And The Comintern: Perspectives On Stalinization. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

What is Modernity essays

What is Modernity essays The 17th century was a horrible age of wars and it was during this time period that the 30 Years War took place. Religion also played a large part in modernity. It was starting to separate from the government at this time, and at the same time, the rise of scientific knowledge began. The 18th century is where things really started to take off and is really the beginning of modernity as we know it. Civilization went from horses and carriages in the early 1700s to steam engines by the 1780s. Also, in the early 1700s, art was more neoclassical and governed by the aristocracy, whereas by the late 18th century, art had turned more towards the middle class and romanticism. The 18th century is where modern culture begins with a movement aptly named the Enlightenment. With the Enlightenment came a new use of thought, a more humanistic way of thought. Also with the Enlightenment came the rise of science. Throughout the lifetime of man, we as humans have always been searching for the solid foundation of what our existence is built on. This search became even more important with the new, enlightened form of thinking. Overall there are five parts of the Enlightenment: empiricism, utilitarianism, self-interest, reason, and universalism. Empiricism is knowledge based on the scientific approach. It is always looking for answers through a series of laid out questions. It is very inductive, and after this knowledge of thought has been used, it generally decreases ones spirituality. All the person is seeking out is the proven facts. Utilitarianism is reality based on the greatest good for the greatest number. When searching for the truth, we should find the truth with the most good. John Locke is seen as being a person of utilitarian thought. Self-Interest is a large part of the Enlightenment, mainly due to the book published by Adam Smith in 1776 entitled The Wealth of Nations. This book p...

Assassin Bugs in the Garden

Assassin Bugs in the Garden Assassin bugs get their name from their predatory habits. Gardeners consider them beneficial insects because their voracious appetites for other bugs keep pests under control. All About Assassin Bugs Assassin bugs use piercing, sucking mouthparts to feed and have long, slender antennae. A short, three-segmented beak distinguishes Reduviids from other true bugs, which generally have beaks with four segments. Their heads are often tapered behind the eyes, so they look like they have a long neck. Reduviids vary in size, from just a few millimeters in length to over three centimeters. Some assassin bugs seem rather bland in brown or black, while others sport elaborate markings and brighter colors. The front legs of assassin bugs are designed for catching prey. When threatened, assassin bugs may inflict a painful bite, so be careful handling them. Classification of Assassin Bugs Kingdom – AnimaliaPhylum – ArthropodaClass – InsectaOrder – HemipteraFamily – Reduviidae The Assassin Bug Diet Most assassin bugs prey on other small invertebrates. A few parasitic Reduviids, like the well-known kissing bugs, suck the blood of vertebrates, including humans. The Assasin Bug Life Cycle Assassin bugs, like other Hemipterans, undergo incomplete metamorphosis with three stages- egg, nymph, and adult. The female lays clusters of eggs on plants. Wingless nymphs hatch from the eggs and molt several times to reach adulthood in about two months. Assassin bugs living in colder climates usually overwinter as adults. Special Adaptations and Defenses Toxins in the assassin bugs saliva paralyze its prey. Many have sticky hairs on their front legs, which help them grasp other insects. Some assassin bug nymphs camouflage themselves with debris, from dust bunnies to insect carcasses. Assassin bugs do whatever it takes to catch a meal. Many employ specialized behaviors or modified body parts designed to fool their prey. One termite-hunting species in Costa Rica uses the dead termite carcasses as bait to attract live ones, then pounces on the unsuspecting insect and eats it. Certain assassin bugs in southeast Asia will stick their hairy front legs in tree resin, and use it to attract bees. Range and Distribution of Assassin Bugs A cosmopolitan family of insects, assassin bugs live throughout the world. They are particularly diverse in the tropics. Scientists describe 6,600 distinct species, with over 100 types of assassin bugs living in North America.

Write in APA format, a brief summary of 5 well known theories of Essay

Write in APA format, a brief summary of 5 well known theories of psychology(namely behavioural, cognitive, developmental, humanistic and personality) and give o - Essay Example He stated that it is not something that has to be repeated many times, but instead, if the behaviour that you want is clearly communicated, an individual will react to a familiar stimulus ("B.F. Skinner", 2008, p.1). Skinner called his theory "operant conditioning." He used a system of positive and negative enforcers to help strengthen or eliminate behaviours. The use of behavioural modification means that an individual may "change the consequences of behaviour in order to guide it to what is required. Skinner saw that although there would be a large task that was to be completed, it would be a better idea to break these larger steps down into small ones. This way a child could concentrate on one step at a time and be rewarded for the accomplishment of each task ("The 1950s, n.d.). In the view of the behaviourists, the way to motivate a child to learn is to reinforce the behaviour you want and ignore the behaviour you do not want. As an example, you have a child who does not want to clean their room. A chart can be set up and each time a child cleans their room, they receive a positive sticker (maybe a smiling face) on the chart. When they do not, they receive a negative sticker (maybe a frowning face). In order to go to McDonalds or get a special treat, they must have an accumulation of positive stickers. This can motivate a child to clean their room. Eventually, this will be made into a habit of course and you can gradually discontinue the stickers (according to his theory). The cognitive theorists were focused on finding out how people learned through understanding material in their environment. One of the foremost theorists in this area was Jean Piaget. He believed that children do not necessarily learn in a smooth way but in a series of stages of cognitive development. His stages include: Although many children follow this approach, many may find that they start the stages earlier than Piaget said. Other theorists like Vygotsky found that there were